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The Beaufort force 11 wind description, corresponding to mean wind speeds of 56–63 knots. Exceptionally high waves may hide small and medium-sized vessels from view, while foam and spray greatly reduce visibility. Such conditions are extremely hazardous and are rarely encountered by small craft operating prudently. The Beaufort force is based on wind speed and…
A Beaufort force 12 wind, with a mean speed of 64 knots or more. Hurricane force is the highest numbered force on the Beaufort scale and describes extremely destructive wind and exceptional sea conditions. The term can be used for wind outside a tropical cyclone and therefore does not by itself mean that a meteorological…
A five-category scale classifying hurricanes by their maximum sustained surface wind speed. Category 1 begins at 64 knots and Category 5 at 137 knots on the one-minute sustained-wind convention used by the United States National Hurricane Center. The categories indicate potential wind damage but do not measure a cyclone’s physical size or overall destructive potential….
The amount of dissolved salts in seawater or other water. Ocean salinity varies with evaporation, precipitation, river input, ice formation and melting, and mixing between water masses. It influences seawater density, buoyancy, sound speed, freezing point and large-scale circulation. Modern oceanography commonly reports practical salinity as a dimensionless value derived from conductivity, while absolute salinity…
Breaking wave crests whose entrained air and foam appear white against the surrounding water. Also called whitecaps, they form when waves become steep enough to break under wind, opposing current, shallow-water or crossing-sea effects. Their increasing frequency is one visual cue used in empirical wind and sea-state descriptions. White horses do not correspond to one…
Waves or turbulent water generated by a vessel’s hull or propulsion system. Hull-generated wash forms part of the wake, while propeller and thruster wash can create strong local jets even when the vessel has little speed over the ground. Shallow or confined water can amplify wave height, bank interaction and seabed disturbance. Wash can endanger…
The disturbed flow and wave pattern left behind a vessel or other body moving through water. A vessel’s wake can include divergent and transverse waves, propeller wash, turbulence and a region of changed current. Its size and persistence depend on speed, displacement, hull form, depth, channel width and propulsion rather than speed alone. Wake can…
A narrow channel crossing or winding through a shoal, sandbank or area of shallow water. A swashway is formed and altered by tidal streams and wave action and may provide a shorter passage for suitable shallow-draught craft. Depth, width and alignment can change after storms or as banks migrate. Use requires current local and chart…
The Beaufort Force 10 wind category, corresponding to sustained winds of 48 to 55 knots. The Met Office marine description is ‘Storm’. In a fully developed open sea it is associated with very high waves, long overhanging crests, extensive foam and spray and reduced visibility, but actual waves depend on fetch, duration, depth and pre-existing…
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